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What Is Permeability of Boundaries in a Family

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Front Psychol. 2018; 9: 1723.

Boundary Management Permeability and Relationship Satisfaction in Dual-Earner Couples: The Asymmetrical Gender Upshot

Marcello Russo

1Bologna Concern School, Academy of Bologna, Bologna, Italia

2Department of Management, Kedge Business concern School, Bordeaux, France

Ariane Ollier-Malaterre

3ESG School of Management, Université du Québec A Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada

Ellen Ernst Kossek

4Krannert School of Management and Susan B. Bulter Middle for Leadership Excellence, Purdue University, Due west Lafayette, IN, U.s.

Marc Ohana

2Section of Management, Kedge Business concern School, Bordeaux, France

Received 2018 January 19; Accepted 2018 Aug 24.

Abstract

Given the increasing use of applied science and the growing blurring of the boundaries between the work and nonwork domains, decisions about when to interrupt work for family and vice versa can accept critical implications for relationship satisfaction within dual-earner couples. Using a sample of 104 dual-earner couples wherein one of the partners is a member of the largest Italian smartphone-user community, this report examines how variation in boundary management permeability inside dual-earner couples relates to partner relationship satisfaction, and whether the effect differed by gender and partners' understanding on caregiving roles in the family. Using actor–partner analysis, we examined the caste to which an individual and his or her partner's level of family unit-interrupting work behaviors (FIWB, e.yard., taking a call from the partner while at work) and work-interrupting family unit behaviors (WIFB, e.thousand., checking piece of work emails during family dinner) was positively related to relationship satisfaction. Results show that women experienced greater relationship satisfaction than men when their partners engaged in higher levels of FIWB, and this relationship was stronger when partners had perceptual congruence on who is primarily responsible for caregiving arrangements in the family. This study advances research on dual-earner couples by showing the importance of examining boundary management permeability every bit a family unit social miracle capturing transforming gender roles.

Keywords: boundary management, dual-earner couples, gender, relationship satisfaction, partner understanding

Introduction

Contemporary dual-earner couples face different challenges in managing work and nonwork relationships than did prior generations, when most men worked as the chief breadwinner, and women stayed at domicile to manage caregiving (Kanter, 1977). The multitude of everyday work, family, and personal issues to handle (Nomaguchi and Milkie, 2015) takes place in a social context where proliferating personal advice devices, such as cell phones, are likely to blur piece of work–abode boundaries (Olson-Buchanan and Boswell, 2006). These trends tin can make work–family issues increasingly challenging to navigate, with implications for couples' relationships and negotiating gender roles. As an illustration of this, if one partner is always expected to interrupt work and so as to handle family bug, information technology is likely that this situation will have a negative impact not only on career but likewise on relationship satisfaction, particularly if the partner feels that the other should be more involved in caregiving responsibilities. Not wanting (or feeling able) to sacrifice work time for family unit, some couples have renounced parenthood (Friedman, 2013) or opted out of dual careers (Radcliffe and Cassell, 2014). Thus, a growing claiming for contemporary dual-earner couples is how to build a system of boundaries whose permeability, which refers to the ease with which individuals situated in one function manage tasks related to another role (Ashforth et al., 2000), matches each other's personal preferences and needs (Kossek and Lautsch, 2012; Lanaj et al., 2014; Dumas and Sanchez-Burks, 2015).

Although scholars suggest that it is important to accept into account stakeholders' boundary management preferences in improver to the focal individual's (Kreiner et al., 2009), most prior inquiry has adopted an private level of analysis, focusing only on individual purlieus management styles (Bulger et al., 2007; Kossek and Lautsch, 2008), defined as the tactics individuals use to secure their preferred level of permeability in alignment with their personal work and family unit identities (Kossek et al., 2012). Relatively piffling scholarly attending has been given to how congruence in boundary management styles affects a partner's relationship satisfaction and variation in gender differences (Allen et al., 2014; Rothbard and Ollier-Malaterre, 2015).

Trefalt (2013) examined the event of boundary management in dyadic relationships, focusing on how attorneys engaged in different boundary direction decisions (avoidance vs. approach boundary setting) according to the nature of the relationship with potential violators, such as colleagues or clients. However, Trefalt's study was limited to workplace relationships. In the electric current study, we aim to extend this stream of inquiry to dual-earner couples via the Player–Partner Interdependence Model (APIM, Garcia et al., 2015) to empathise how variation in partners' purlieus management permeability relates to relationship satisfaction. Such research is important, as individuals are embedded in a multitude of roles across the workplace (Mitchell et al., 2001), and their partners shape many of their daily work and nonwork attitudes and behaviors (Carlson et al., 2015).

Purlieus (Ashforth et al., 2000) and border (Clark, 2000) theories suggest that individuals' creation and maintenance of boundaries vary along a continuum ranging from complete segmentation to complete integration of domains (Rothbard et al., 2005; Dumas and Sanchez-Burks, 2015). Kossek et al. (2012) recently argued that it is crucial to consider cantankerous-function interruptions, i.e., the "intrusions from one part to another" (Allen et al., 2014, p. 109), because individuals may not e'er have control over their boundaries, and thus their enacted behaviors may differ from their preferences. In this endeavor, we focus on cantankerous-function interruptions, as an indicator of the bodily enactment of permeability couples' work and nonwork boundaries. Because boundaries may exist strong when protecting one role and weak when protecting another (Clark, 2000; Kossek et al., 2012), we focus on work-interrupting-family-behaviors (WIFB) (i.e., enabling work distractions to interfere with the family but not vice versa) as well equally on family-interrupting-piece of work-behaviors (FIWB) (i.e., enabling distractions from the family domain to interfere with the work simply non the opposite).

Drawing on crossover (Westman, 2001; Westman and Etzion, 2005) and gender part (Wood and Eagly, 2015) literatures, we examine whether coupled individuals' cross-role interruptions influence their human relationship satisfaction. Moreover, because how partners manage work and nonwork boundaries may be influenced past gender roles, equally women have traditionally been the master caregivers in the family (as illustrated in Figure ​ 1 ), we also examine whether there are meaning gender differences in this relationship and whether partners' congruence in perceptions of who is the chief manager of caregiving responsibilities in the family has an impact on the strength of this relationship. To test our model, we selected a group of 104 dual-earner couples, wherein one of the partners was a member of the largest Italian smartphone-user customs. This population is specially interesting, every bit it enables us to written report the phenomenon of increasing boundary blurring technologies in a country in which traditional gender role norms prevail (Riva, 2016). Indeed, Italy has i of the highest smartphone penetrations in the world (Newzoo, 2017) merely all the same its prototypical couples notwithstanding comprise male breadwinners and female homemakers (Craig and Mullan, 2010; Dotti Sani, 2014). Thus, examining what consequences the boundary management decisions aimed at regulating work and family interruptions generate on coupled men and women's human relationship satisfaction can assistance to identify potential gender differences associated with the increasing employ of communication technologies, which is the cause of frequent episodes of part blurring (Olson-Buchanan and Boswell, 2006).

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The impact of cantankerous-function interruptions behaviors on partner relationship satisfaction as moderated by gender and couples' agreement on caregiving responsibility enactment.

This paper advances enquiry on boundary management in 3 important means. Commencement, this written report extends prior research past shedding light on the undertheorized fit between the enacted boundary management behaviors and the partners' relationship satisfaction. We extend Trefalt (2013) piece of work on the impact of dyadic workplace relationships on boundary management effectiveness to the family sphere. 2d, this study contributes to the literature on dual-earner couples (Becker and Moen, 1999; Solomon and Jackson, 2014; Ferguson et al., 2016) by testing if the degree of couple agreement on caregiving responsibilities is an important condition that tin decide the success (or failure) of boundary management behaviors, a phenomenon that is pivotal in contemporary work–family unit inquiry (Bianchi and Milkie, 2010). Third, we explore how boundary management permeability may capture transforming gender roles, examining the positive effects on women'southward relationship satisfaction when men engage in high family unit to work-interruption behaviors.

Theoretical Foundation

Individuals are embedded in a larger socio-emotional unit, namely, the family, which tin exert a bang-up influence on thoughts, emotions, and behaviors (Hammer et al., 2003, 2005). Ollier-Malaterre et al. (2015) suggest that an individual's ability to maintain his or her work–life residuum in the midst of a macro life transition, such as relocation to some other country, divorce, or arrival of a baby, may depend on interactions, negotiations, and problem-solving with significant piece of work and family stakeholders, including the partner. Thus, information technology is probable that an individual'due south cantankerous-part interruptions, and specifically his or her engagement in WIFB and/or FIWB, can influence the partner's attitudes and behaviors in the home domain.

Crossover and spillover research as well suggest that the demands associated with one partner's work may interfere with the operation and emotions experienced in the family domain (Matthews et al., 2006; Halbesleben et al., 2012). Piotrkowski et al. (1987) accept been among the commencement scholars to demonstrate that an individual'south emotions and work-related stress spill over into the private domain, thus influencing the quality of marital relationships. Similarly, Doumas et al. (2003, 2008) have demonstrated that spillover is a relevant phenomenon both in single- and dual-earner couples, affecting the quality of marital relationship. While spillover focuses on cross-domain interference of one's emotions within the same person, crossover focuses on influences across persons, every bit it examines how an individual's function experience influences emotions, stress, and behaviors of other people in the same social surroundings. Crossover scholars (eastward.thousand., Westman and Vinokur, 1998; Westman, 2001) have demonstrated that the transmission of ane's role experiences to ane's partner can be direct when partners become empathetic of each other's affective states, e.g., spurious when partners share some common concerns (e.g., fiscal issues) that lead them to experience similar affective states, or indirect, when the demands associated with one's function affect the partner past reducing the communication quality and the participation in the other office, resulting in less common back up (Westman, 2001). Based on this line of reasoning, nosotros hypothesize that, when the focal actor engages in WIFB, such every bit when he or she responds to a work-related call during a family unit meal or completes work during time spent at home, the partner's relationship satisfaction can be negatively affected, every bit the focal actor's work-related interruptions can diminish the quality of the fourth dimension spent together besides equally the participation of the focal actor into the family. Conversely, nosotros fence that engaging in FIWB, such as responding to a call from school while existence at piece of work or taking intendance of an urgent family matter during working hours, tin can be perceived by the partner as a sign of back up and appointment with the family, with positive repercussions on relationship satisfaction. Thus, nosotros hypothesize the following:

  • unproblematic

    Hypothesis 1: Individuals' WIFB are negatively related to their partner's relationship satisfaction.

  • unproblematic

    Hypothesis 2: Individuals' FIWB are positively related to their partner's relationship satisfaction.

The Moderating Function of Gender

Nosotros also hypothesize that the effects of a focal thespian's cross-role interruptions on the partner's relationship satisfaction are moderated by gender. We depict on the gender function literature to explicate this hypothesis. Gendered beliefs concerning men and women's division of labor consist of a series of role-specific norms and expectations that instill amid individuals the force per unit area to conduct in a way that is consequent with prototypical masculine and feminine roles in gild (Eagly and Wood, 1999). Gender norms vary beyond cultures. For example, Scandinavian countries accept high gender egalitarianism (House et al., 2004), pregnant that both men and women typically work outside the domicile, and that "masculine" and "feminine" roles cantankerous genders easily. Other countries, similar Italia, operate within a breadwinner-homemaker framework (Pfau-Effinger, 2000; Lewis, 2009). In such countries, women are expected to exist the chief contact for dependent care and to handle almost of the domestic chores, fifty-fifty if they hold professional person roles (Dotti Sani, 2014). Instead, men are expected to devote most of their fourth dimension to work activities to provide financial stability to their family, even if it ways working long hours and beingness absent from home for most of the 24-hour interval/week. Gender norms can take meaning implications on individuals' boundary direction permeability. For example, in Italy information technology is typically tolerated that men have permeable family boundaries and appoint in WIFB (but non vice versa), whereas women are expected to take permeable piece of work boundaries and engage in FIWB (only not vice versa) (Riva, 2016; Ollier-Malaterre, 2018).

Drawing on this logic, nosotros argue that the forcefulness of the relationship between a focal role player's cross-role interruptions and the partner's relationship satisfaction varies according to the gender of the enactor of cross-role behaviors. Specifically, we advise that WIFB will be more than strongly negatively related to the partner's human relationship satisfaction when it is the woman who engages in WIFB rather than the human, equally women who engage in frequent work-related interruptions behave in a way that is inconsistent with traditional gender norms. This line of reasoning is supported by prior research showing that men and women feel higher emotional distress and relationship dissolution when their behaviors deviate from prevailing gender roles (W and Zimmerman, 1987; Faulkner et al., 2005), whereas they experience greater stamina when they enact roles in a gender-consistent fashion (Vohs et al., 2005). Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

  • elementary

    Hypothesis 3a: The human relationship between an individual's WIFB and the partner'southward relationship satisfaction is moderated by gender such that women's WIFB is more strongly negatively related to their partner's relationship satisfaction than men'south WIFB.

Regarding family-related interruptions occurring at piece of work, we fence that the relationship between a focal thespian's FIWB and the partner's relationship satisfaction volition be stronger and more positive when it is the human being who engages in FIWB rather than woman. Considering Italian women are expected to prioritize family unit over work (Riva, 2016; Ollier-Malaterre, 2018), the impact of women's FIWB on men's human relationship satisfaction tin be minimal because men may consider women's interruptions to take care of the family unit as normal and necessary to fulfill the basic responsibilities and obligations specified in their function fifty-fifty if they are working. In dissimilarity, men's appointment in FIWB can be noteworthy, equally it is a behavior that significantly diverts from traditional gender norms; thereby, it can be more impactful on women's relationship satisfaction. Opportunities for both men and women to participate equally into the labor market are associated with greater human relationship satisfaction for women (Komter et al., 2012; Keizer and Komter, 2015). Thus, we hypothesize the post-obit:

  • simple

    Hypothesis 3b: The relationship between an individual's FIWB and the partner'due south relationship satisfaction is moderated by gender such that men's FIWB is more strongly positively related to their partner's relationship satisfaction than the women's FIWB.

Couple Understanding on Caregiving Responsibilities and Gender as Moderators of the Human relationship Between Wifb and Relationship Satisfaction

We also consider the role of partners' agreement on caregiving responsibilities as a disquisitional moderator of the human relationship betwixt cross-office interruptions and relationship satisfaction. Prior research has shown that partners' agreement is crucial when examining the consequences of work–family experiences within couples (i.e., Streich et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 2018), every bit partners alive in the same social organization influencing each other (Hammer et al., 2003, 2005). Regarding purlieus management, albeit the concept of agreement has never been studied in prior inquiry, several studies have shown that couples engage in consultation, bargaining, and agreement when deciding the level of permeability of their boundaries (Carlson et al., 2015; Ferguson et al., 2016). Given this previous enquiry, nosotros suggest that, when partners agree on who is primarily responsible for caregiving activities in the family unit, they will feel less negative consequences when engaging in cross-part interruptions. Moreover, we contend that the function of couple agreement is fifty-fifty more critical for women, as gender office expectations in the Italian society are more salient for women than for men, strongly influencing their decisions regarding the engagement in work and family activities. As an analogy, imagine a couple in which partners agree that that the male person partner volition be in accuse of caregiving arrangements and the female partner will be more focused on the job. In such a couple, it is possible that women's college date in WIFB will accept a lower impact on men's human relationship satisfaction than in couples wherein partners accept not reached such agreement, as this beliefs reflects a couple's shared decision. Thus, we hypothesize the following:

  • simple

    Hypothesis 4: The relationship betwixt an private'southward cross-role suspension behaviors and the partner'due south relationship satisfaction is moderated by the couple's agreement on caregiving responsibilities and the partner's gender such that the actor'southward engagement in WIFB volition be less strongly negatively related to the partner's relationship satisfaction when the couple agrees on the allocation of caregiving activities in the family, particularly when the player engaging in WIFB is the adult female rather than the man.

Materials and Methods

Participants and Procedures

Participants in this study were members of one of the largest Italian communities of smartphone users 1 . This customs accounts for more than 5000 members and registers more than 2.5 million unique visitors per month on its websites. In 2012, we contacted a web managing director and asked for collaboration in recruiting potential participants. Three recruiting letters were posted on the domicile page of the community's website at 3-calendar week intervals with a link directing to an online registration class that specified the study's requirements: (i) to be a full-time employee and (ii) to be engaged with a cohabiting partner who has a full- or part-time task. Iii hundred and xx respondents completed the survey. Among them, 33 respondents were excluded because they did non meet the inclusion requirements. The total number of usable surveys was 287. Respondents were asked to invite their partner to participate in the study. To increase partners' participation, nosotros set up a cartoon lottery for five iTunes souvenir cards prize of 50€ each. I hundred and thirty-one participants encouraged their partners to participate in the written report, which made a response charge per unit of 41%. Partners were sent a separate link to access a questionnaire containing the study's variables. This procedure was followed to forestall participants from taking the study twice, for themselves and the partner. Based on our selection criteria, 27 couples were excluded from the study considering they were not in a dual-earning state of affairs. The final sample consisted of 104 heterosexual couples. Sample characteristics are described in Table ​ one . Participating couples are quite illustrative of the Italian guild, as men worked on average longer hours than women (39.71 vs. 33.51 h, p < 0.05), and women who were more educated than men but nevertheless agree less managerial roles in companies than their male counterparts (even if those differences are not pregnant). Also typical of Italian order, women were employed in great numbers in occupations typically dominated by women, such as healthcare and education, whereas men were employed in greater numbers in the loftier-tech, manufacturing, and finance industries (p < 0.05). Finally, participants were asked to indicate the number of children they had to care at dwelling house. Only 31 couples (30%) answered to this question; whereas 73 couples preferred not to reply. A possible reason for such high number of missing values may be that Italian parents could perceive this question to be intrusive given that they are ofttimes criticized for non encouraging their children to go out home even when they are adults and accept a job. Amidst these 31 couples who answered the question, 42% had one or more children they had to care at dwelling. Due to the loftier number of missing variables, nosotros have decided not to include this variable in further analyses.

Table ane

Description of the demographic characteristics of the report'southward sample.

Men Women
Average historic period 34.56 36.13
Organizational tenure 7.15 vii.72
Relationship tenure ix.5
Boilerplate number of working hours 39.v 33.5
Education
Bachelor 44% 52%
High school 48% 40%
Job condition
Managers sixteen% 9%
Employees 60% 59%
Consultants 11% 19%
Internship 8% eleven%
Self-employed 5% 2%
Job manufacture
High-tech 24% viii%
Manufacturing fifteen% viii%
Education 10% 15%
Healthcare nine% 14%
Financial services 9% 6%
Public administration 8% half-dozen%
Trade 4% six%
Service and consulting 3% 9%
Arts and culture three% iv%
Media 2% 3%
Others (e.g., utilities, etc.) 13% 21%

Measures

Cantankerous-Role Interruptions

Items for measuring cross-role interruptions were from Kossek et al. (2012) and measured the ii directions of interruptions: WIFB (five items) and FIWB (five items). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed with the proposed statements. Answers were collected using a five-bespeak Likert scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The item to measure out piece of work-interrupting-family unit-behaviors (WIFB) were equally follows: "I regularly bring piece of work home"; "I answer to work-related communications (e.g., emails, texts, and phone calls) during my personal time abroad from work"; "I allow work to interrupt me when I spend time with my family unit or friends"; "I usually work during my vacations"; "I usually bring work materials with me when I nourish personal or family activities." The item to measure work-interrupting-family-behaviors (FIWB) were equally follows: "I have care of personal or family unit needs during work"; "I answer to personal communications (due east.g., emails, texts, and phone calls) during work"; "I do not remember nigh my family, friends, or personal interests while working so I can focus" (reverse-coded); "When I work from home, I handle personal or family responsibilities during piece of work"; "I monitor personal-related communications (east.g., emails, texts, and phone calls) when I am working." The Cronbach's alphas were as follows: WIFB (0.85 for men; 0.77 for women) and FIWB (0.69 for men; 0.60 women).

Relationship Satisfaction

Human relationship satisfaction was assessed with the five-item marital satisfaction calibration by Norton (1983) by replacing the term "marriage" with "relationship" considering that not all the participating couples were engaged in a married relationship. Answers were collected using a five-signal Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. A sample particular is: "My relationship with my partner makes me very happy." The Cronbach's alphas were 0.88 for men and 0.91 for women.

Partners' Understanding

To measure partners' understanding on caregiving responsibilities, based on Kossek et al. (2001), we asked each partner to independently report who, in their stance, was primarily responsible for caregiving arrangements in their family. Respondents could select two alternatives: (one) themselves and (2) the partner. Then, we coded the responses to create a dummy variable, with one indicating partners' understanding and 0 indicating partners' disagreement. Nosotros chose not to offer the option to respond that both partners were as responsible for intendance, as this choice might take induced socially desirable responses, especially amongst men, who like to consider themselves as egalitarian fifty-fifty if they enact nonegalitarian behaviors or adopt traditional home-centered partners (Keizer and Komter, 2015). Overall, 69% of couples agreed on who was primarily responsible for caregiving activities in the family unit and, again typical of Italy, in 79% of cases partners alleged that the adult female was most responsible for caregiving activities in the family; whereas the man was indicated as being mainly responsible for caregiving activities in just 21% of couples.

Demographic Covariate Measures

Post-obit prior studies (Carlson et al., 2015; Ferguson et al., 2016), we included several demographic covariates in our analysis: organizational tenure, relationship tenure, and number of hours worked per calendar week.

Couple Type Covariate Measure out

The type of couple that partners form, which stems from their function identity, may influence the partners' work–family decisions and behaviors, such every bit who is interrupting piece of work for family and vice versa. Masterson and Hoobler (2015) identified five types of dual-earner couples: (one) traditional (i.eastward., a couple, wherein the human is by and large focused on work and the adult female on family); (ii) nontraditional (i.eastward., a couple, wherein the man is mostly focused on family and the woman on work); (3) family unit first (i.eastward., a couple, wherein both the homo and the woman are more than focused on family than work); (iv) outsourced (i.east., a couple, wherein both the man and the woman are more focused on work than family, therefore outsourcing the activities of care); and (5) egalitarian (i.e., a couple, wherein the homo and the adult female are highly focused both on piece of work and on family unit). Part identity is besides considered past Kossek et al. (2012) to be an of import dimension of an individual's purlieus management style. Therefore, we included measures of piece of work and family identities and coded the partners' responses so every bit to include couple type every bit a covariate. We used Kossek et al. (2006) to measure work identity (two items) and family identity (two items). Sample items are: "People run across me as highly focused on my work" (work identity) and "I invest a large part of myself in my family unit life" (family identity). Two authors coded the couples' typology based on the men and women'south score on the piece of work and family role identity scales. We computed the difference for each partner between his or her work and family identity score and then assigned the couple to a couple scenario type. For example, when men reported higher work identity than family identity and women reported higher family identity than work identity, we coded such couples equally beingness "traditional," equally suggested past Masterson and Hoobler (2015). If both the male and female person partners had relatively equal and higher scores on both work and family unit identity scales, we coded the couple as "egalitarian." We repeated this process using two coders and resolved disagreements past turning to Masterson and Hoobler's definitions to brand our final decision.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed with multilevel modeling using the APIM for distinguishable dyads with a between dyad'southward moderator (Garcia et al., 2015). Such technique enabled the states to test the relationships between a focal actor'southward cantankerous-function interruption and the partner'south human relationship satisfaction while accounting for the nested structure of the data (individuals within couples). In this model, the "role player effect" represents the association between cross-role interruptions and relationship satisfaction inside a person, namely, the event of the actor A's self-reported cantankerous-role pause and role player A's self-reported human relationship satisfaction. "Partner effect" represents the association across people, namely, the effect of actor A's self-reported cross-role interruptions on partner B's human relationship satisfaction and vice versa. Relationship satisfaction was the dependent variable. Individual-level predictors, namely, self and partner reported cross-part interruptions, were explored at level 1, and couple-level variables, i.due east., the moderator indicating the partners' agreement on caregiving arrangements, were explored at level 2. Predictors were grand-mean centered before running the analyses. The analyses were conducted with HLM vii, using full maximum likelihood estimation and unstandardized standard errors.

Results

Table ​ 2 displays the means and standard deviations for all variables, and Table ​ 3 shows the correlations between all the study's variables, with men's correlations above the diagonal and women'south correlations below the diagonal. We used paired samples t tests to examine gender differences on the study's variables. No significant gender differences were found with regard to average levels of WIFB and relationship satisfaction. The difference betwixt men and women'south FIWB was significant (mean departure = 0.17; t = one.991; p < 0.5); surprisingly, men engaged in greater FIWB than women. Turning to dyadic analysis, interestingly, the within-dyad correlations were statistically pregnant, which supports the importance of examining relationships at the dyadic level using the APIM method, which accounts for nested nonindependent relationships.

Table 2

Means and standard deviations of the main study'south variables.

Men
 Women
Thousand Due south.D. One thousand S.D.
Family-Interrupting-Work-Behaviors (FIWB) 3.38 0.73 three.xx 0.72
Work-Interrupting-Family-Behaviors (WIFB) ii.93 0.96 2.77 0.86
Relationship satisfaction 4.22 0.72 iv.25 0.78

Table iii

Correlation matrix for the study's variables.

i ii three iv v vi vii
i Human relationship tenure 0.86∗∗ 0.67∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.04 −0.09 0.05 −0.26∗∗
ii Age 0.69∗∗ 0.81∗∗ 0.71∗∗ 0.03 −0.09 0.12 −0.xxx∗∗
iii Organizational tenure 0.59∗∗ 0.76∗∗ 0.58∗∗ 0.07 −0.06 0.06 −0.22∗
iv Hours worked per week 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.39∗∗ 0.fifteen −0.16 0.12
5 FIWB −0.23∗ −0.28∗∗ −0.19 0.09 0.24∗ 0.26∗∗ 0.25∗
vi WIFB 0.01 0.01 0.01 −0.ten 0.23∗ 0.06 −0.07
vii Relationship satisfaction −0.06 −0.fourteen −0.11 0.xviii 0.03 −0.12 0.45∗∗

The two kickoff hypotheses examined the effects of the focal actor's cross-role break behaviors, namely, WIFB and FIWB, on their partner'due south relationship satisfaction. To test these hypotheses using the APIM, thespian and partner effects were estimated in the aforementioned equation. Data from each dyad fellow member were treated as nested scores within groups of two people. The predictor variables in the model included gender as well as actor and partner's WIFB and FIWB. The hypotheses predicted a negative relation between individuals' WIFB and their partner's relationship satisfaction and a positive relation between individuals' FIWB and their partner's relationship satisfaction. As shown in Table ​ 4 , there was a significant negative association between WIFB and the perceived relationship satisfaction for the same individual (b = −0.12; p < 0.05) but no pregnant association between an individual's WIFB and the partner's level of relationship satisfaction (b = −0.01; p > 0.ten). Thus, H1 was non supported, every bit results bear witness that a partner'southward relationship satisfaction was non significantly affected by the focal actor's engagement in WIFB. H2 was supported past data, every bit the results bespeak a significant and positive association between the actor'due south FIWB and the partner's relationship satisfaction (b = 0.17; p < 0.05).

Table 4

Results of HLM regression analysis of histrion and partner effects of cantankerous-role interrupting behaviors predicting relationship satisfaction.

B South.E.
Abiding 4.23∗∗ 0.06
Gender 0.001 0.04
FIWB role player 0.14∗ 0.07
FIWB partner 0.17∗ 0.07
WIFB actor −0.01 0.56
WIFB partner −0.12∗ 0.56

Hypotheses 3 and 4 proposed that the effect of an individual's cross-role interruption behaviors on the partner's human relationship satisfaction differed for men and women and varied for couples, depending on the extent to which partners agreed or disagreed on caregiving responsibilities within the family. To test these hypotheses, "two-intercept" models were estimated (Kenny et al., 2006). In the first step, we introduced the dummies representing gender, the cross-function interruptions, and their interaction with each gender dummy. Table ​ v shows that the interaction term capturing the touch on of women's FIWB on their partner's relationship satisfaction (FIWB partner × homo) was positive and meaning (b = 0.297; p < 0.01). In contrast, the interaction term capturing the impact of men'due south FIWB on their partner's relationship satisfaction (FIWB partner × woman) was not statistically significant (b = 0.05; p = 0.ns). In order to ostend the departure of attitudes betwixt each couple regarding FIWB, nosotros tested simple slopes using the HLM ii–way interaction procedure recommended past Bauer et al. (2006).

Tabular array 5

Results of double intercept models HLM regression analysis predicting relationship satisfaction.

B S.E.
Stride 1 Homo (intercept) iv.25∗∗ 0.07
Woman (intercept) four.26∗∗ 0.07
FIWB Actor × Man −0.01 0.10
FIWB Partner × Man 0.29∗∗ 0.10
WIFB Actor × Homo −0.eleven 0.07
WIFB Partner × Human being −0.02 0.08
FIWB Actor × Woman 0.29∗∗ 0.10
FIWB Partner × Woman 0.05 0.ten
WIFB Actor × Adult female −0.12 0.08
WIFB Partner × Adult female −0.03 0.07
Step 2 Man × Agreement 0.04 0.16
Woman × Understanding 0.04 0.16
FIWB Player × Man × Agreement −0.xix 0.22
FIWB Partner × Human being × Agreement 0.02 0.29
WIFB Actor × Man × Understanding 0.17 0.16
WIFB Partner × Man × Agreement 0.nineteen 0.18
FIWB Actor × Woman × Agreement 0.32 0.29
FIWB Partner × Woman × Understanding −0.37+ 0.22
WIFB Actor × Adult female × Agreement 0.20 0.18
WIFB Partner × Woman × Agreement −0.eleven 0.xvi

Nosotros tested the significance of the slope concerning the moderating office of gender on the WIFB and FIWB and partner effects, i.eastward., whether the upshot of engaging in higher levels of WIFB or FIWB on the partner's relationship satisfaction was stronger for men or for women. H3a was not supported by information. No pregnant effects were institute regarding an actor engaging in college levels of WIFB and the partner result and differences in patterns past gender. However, every bit shown in Effigy ​ 2 and consistent with H3b, engaging in FIWB had a greater positive effect on the partner'south relationship satisfaction when men engaged in higher family-related interruptions at work than women. Results indicate that the simple gradient was significant and positive only for men [uncomplicated slope = 0.5421(0.2364); z = 2.2928; p = 0.0219] but not for women [unproblematic gradient = 0.0528(0.1005); z = 0.5258; p = 0.599].

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Results of interactions between gender and the degree to which individuals engaged in family interrupting work behaviors on partner'southward relationship satisfaction.

Hypotheses 4 was tested using a three–manner interaction with gender, cross-function interruptions, and partners' agreement on caregiving roles. We introduced in the models the interactions between partners' understanding on caregiving roles, WIFB, and gender to analyze if partner agreement on caregiving responsibilities within the family strengthened or attenuated the relationship betwixt cantankerous-role suspension behaviors and relationship satisfaction for men and women. Tabular array ​ iv shows that the interaction betwixt gender, WIFB and partner agreement was not pregnant (both ps > 0.25), failing to support H4. Notably, nosotros also tested if our results differed amongst different types of couples based on Masterson and Hoobler (2015) couple typology, and nosotros establish no significant difference in our results, thereby suggesting that the different combination of men and women's part identities did non significantly shape the relationship between an private'south cross-office interruption behaviors and the partner'due south relationship satisfaction 2 .

Give-and-take

This study advances enquiry on dual-earner couples by showing the importance of examining boundary management permeability equally a family social–relational phenomenon capturing transforming gender roles. With the increasing use of prison cell phones and blurring work–life boundaries, couples must increasingly navigate work and nonwork interruptions throughout the day in ways that enable them to fulfill their work and family responsibilities. The goal of this paper was to examine the furnishings of individuals' cantankerous-office interrupting behaviors on the partner's human relationship satisfaction bookkeeping for gender differences and partner understanding on the division of labor regarding caregiving responsibilities within the family. Cartoon on prior inquiry suggesting that couples' work–family unit behaviors are highly influenced by gender norms (Nomaguchi and Milkie, 2015; Wood and Eagly, 2015), nosotros examined whether individuals experienced higher or lower relationship satisfaction when their partner engaged in higher family interfering piece of work behaviors (FIWB) or higher work interfering family behaviors (WIFB) and the extent to which gender and couples' understanding on caregiving responsibilities played in influencing these relationships.

The results betoken that, beyond couples and for women peculiarly, the extent to which an individual engages in higher or lower levels of FIWB, but not WIFB, tin significantly shape a partner'southward relationship satisfaction. The result of the ii–fashion interaction assay with gender reveals that women experienced higher levels of relationship satisfaction than men when their partner handled family issues while being at work, i.e., when they engaged in high FIWB. This event demonstrates that the examination of BM behaviors in dual-earner couples can exist better understood past because societal gender role expectations. Cartoon on the gender office perspective, it is possible that the lack of significance betwixt women's date in FIWB and men'due south relationship satisfaction is due to the belief that women who interrupt their piece of work activities to have intendance of family issues are "simply adhering" to the basic societal expectations in traditional gender role countries like Italy (Riva, 2016; Ollier-Malaterre, 2018). Thus, engaging in FIWB may be unnoticed and less valued than in more egalitarian countries, thereby producing minimal effects on men's relationship satisfaction. By dissimilarity, it is possible that women are more satisfied of their human relationship when men handle family-related activities at piece of work, as this is an unexpected beliefs that deviates from traditional gender norms, thereby becoming more than noticeable and appreciated. Considering prior research has found that contemporary women increasingly look for gender egalitarian partners (Printing, 2004; Stanik et al., 2013), it is possible that existence partnered with a man who is more involved in the family unit domain has positive repercussions on the human relationship satisfaction for dual-earner women. Regarding the furnishings of couple understanding on the resource allotment of caregiving responsibilities, the results did not provide support to our hypotheses every bit neither women nor men experienced greater human relationship satisfaction in presence of partners' WIFB when the couple agreed on caregiving responsibilities.

Theoretical Contributions

Nosotros contribute to the boundary management literature by extending emerging work on the relational nature of boundary direction, which had focused on relationships in the workplace, to couples' relationships. More specifically, our study extends prior research that emphasizes the relational context in which boundaries are crafted and negotiated (Trefalt, 2013); our findings indicate that not but workplace relationships matter simply also dyadic intimate relationships in which purlieus management decisions, such equally how to manage caregiving responsibilities, are often discussed and negotiated. This is important because what happens in our romantic relationships can bear upon work too (Turvey and Olson, 2006) and considering these domains are increasingly continued (Hammer et al., 2003).

Our research thus extends the purlieus management literature by emphasizing the value of focusing on couples equally a unit of measurement (Luo and Klohnen, 2005) and by showing the importance of considering gender norms when analyzing the outcomes of boundary management. Our research extends and departs from prior research that examined the congruence between one's personal preferences for segmentation/integration and stakeholders' preferences at work or at abode to ensure boundary direction success (Kreiner et al., 2009). In the case of couples, we have demonstrated that it is also crucial to likewise consider the alignment with societal gender norms. This is important equally, thus far, boundary management enquiry has not acknowledged the influence of gender role norms on boundary management behaviors and success, whereas more than studies examining gender roles have been conducted on piece of work–family conflict and enrichment (Frone et al., 1992).

Practical Implications

Our written report has important practical implications for coupled individuals and organizations. Coupled individuals are rarely aware that their boundary management behaviors may bear on the well-being of their partner's as well as their own. Moreover, coupled individuals seldom understand that the fashion the couple manages the work and nonwork boundaries in accordance to pervasive gender norms, or in contrast with these norms, has consequences for their relationship satisfaction. For this reason, information technology may be worthwhile for couples to appraise their partner'due south boundary direction preferences and behaviors and to examine how their family unit's roles and responsibilities tin best be met. This may imply explicit discussions about how career and family aspirations could be conciliated within the couple and how caregiving roles could exist distributed in accordance with the legitimate preferences and aspirations of each partner.

As for organizational implications, our research should be of interest, as human relationship tensions are among the major causes of lark at work (Turvey and Olson, 2006), and they can accept a meaning touch on on business organization operations and performance (Ferguson et al., 2012). It may be useful for organizations to include resources on healthy romantic relationships in corporate wellness and counseling programs with the goal of improving employees' communication, conflict resolution, and parenting skills.

Limitations and Future Inquiry

The present study is non without limitations. First, causal directions cannot be interpreted due to the cross-sectional nature of data. However, the theoretical reasoning supporting our hypotheses is consistent with the literature on couples and union (e.one thousand., Matthews et al., 2006; Stanik et al., 2013; Keizer and Komter, 2015), consistently reporting the effects of the division of household labor on marital relationships and not the other way around. For instance, Stanik et al. (2013) found that, in couples where the division of household labor reflected traditional gender role ideologies, women reported a lower level of love over time; whereas love remained stable over time when partners participated more equally in household labor. Likewise, Keizer and Komter (2015) institute that, although men reported higher relationship satisfaction when they held more modern gender part attitudes, they reported significant lower relationship satisfaction when coupled with a female partner who did not attach to traditional gender norms. Although the literature clearly supports causality in the management nosotros hypothesized, we recommend that future inquiry uses longitudinal enquiry designs that dominion out the opposite causality. Such blueprint would besides business relationship for changes individuals may experience in their boundary management behaviors beyond career and life stages (Rothbard and Ollier-Malaterre, 2015) and shed lite on couples' trade-off over their life class (Becker and Moen, 1999). From a methodological perspective, another limitation is the limited sample size with data nerveless in just one country, which reduced the generalizability of our conclusions. Further research should replicate our model with a larger number of couples from countries with different levels of gender egalitarianism in order to confirm the robustness of our results.

Our paper, which is i of the start to admit the importance of considering gender norms in boundary management inside couples, opens up other avenues for futurity research. In particular, we encourage scholars to examine other variables of interest for couples such as the specificities of the caregiving responsibilities (i.e., number of children, number of hours spent caring for children, every bit well as for elder parents or handicapped adults), and the partners' agreement on the cross-role break behaviors themselves. Other variables of interest at the individual level would be segmentation and integration preferences. Chiefly, albeit our findings could be generalized to other countries in which traditional gender role norms prevail – that is a sizable office of the globe (Ollier-Malaterre, 2018) – time to come research on couples' dynamics in different countries, in particular countries presenting greater variation in their internal level of gender equality and including couples with different work and family circumstances (due east.g., single earner families, same-sex partnerships), would exist valuable. Concluding, it could exist fruitful to measure gender role orientation at the individual level to exist attuned to the thought of tightness vs. looseness of national cultures (Tsui et al., 2007) and capture potential within-country heterogeneity in perceptions of gender norms (Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013).

Conclusion

This report provides empirical evidence that connecting research on boundary management permeability, couples' dynamics, and gender norms provides a richer understanding of the effects of boundary direction behaviors in dual-earner couples. Our results suggest that in that location exists no unique all-time way to manage boundaries in a couple inside a traditional gender role context; rather trade-offs and collaboration seem necessary to assess what boundary management behaviors may be suitable for the couple in a detail cultural context. Nosotros hope that this study sparks interest into further analysis of these merchandise-offs and of their outcomes.

Ideals Statement

This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of "Recommendations for Conducting Research with Human Beings, Inquiry Committee Rouen Business School, France" with written informed consent from all subjects. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The research protocol was canonical by the Research Ethics Committee of the Rouen Business School (at present Neoma), in France, which was the primary institution of two authors at the time of data drove.

Writer Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, straight and intellectual contribution to the piece of work, and approved it for publication.

Disharmonize of Interest Argument

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of any commercial or fiscal relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.

Funding. This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Inquiry Council of Canada (SHRCC) to Ariane Ollier-Malaterre Grant number is #435-2018-1337.

1The research protocol was canonical past the Research Ethics Commission of the Rouen Business School (now Neoma), in France, which was the primary institution of two authors at the time of information collection.

2Results available from corresponding author upon request.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6146097/

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